Histology

Topic 1: Presentation of the course. Introduction to histology. From tissue sample collection to the observation at the microscope.
· Describe the main techniques used in histology.
· Describe the general aspects of histological specimen processing, such as inclusion, fixation and sectioning.
· Describe the main commonly used histological and histochemical staining.

Topic 2: Special topic: Instruments for morphological analysis and biomedical applications: not "simply" microscopes.
· Describe the main instruments for the morphological analysis and their application in the different fields of medicine for both research and diagnostic purposes.

Topic 3. A journey through the cell: from outside to cell compartments.
·Describe the structure of cell membrane and the most important mechanisms of transport across the cell membrane.
·Describe the specialized functions of cell membrane.
·Describe the structure of both rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, and know their specific functions.
·Describe the structure of the Golgi apparatus and know its functions.
·Describe the structure of ribosomes and their specific functions.
·Recognize cell membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and ribosomes at the electron microscope level.

Topic 4. Vesicle trafficking. Exocytosis and endocytosis. Lysosomes. Peroxisomes.
· Describe vesicle trafficking and the mechanisms involved in directing vesicles to the different cell compartments.
·Describe the mechanisms of endocytosis.
·Describe the mechanisms of exocytosis.
·Describe the structure of lysosomes and peroxisomes, and their specific functions.
·Recognize lysosomes and peroxisomes at the electron microscope level.

Topic 5: Mitochondria.
·Describe the structure of mitochondria and their functions.
·Describe mitochondria morphology and localization in relation to cell type and cell function.
·Recognize mitochondria at the electron microscope level.

Topic 6. The cytoskeleton.
·Describe microfilaments with particular attention to their arrangement in apical specializations of epithelial cells, to cell motility and to their role in cell junctions supporting.
·Describe intermediate filaments, with particular attention to their role of stabilizing structures of cell junctions.
·Describe microtubules at the morphological and functional level, with particular attention to their arrangement in apical specializations of epithelial cells.
Clinical drop: epidermolysis bullosa simplex
Clinical drop: primary ciliary dyskinesia

Topic 7. A journey through the cell: from the nucleus to the cell cycle. Introduction to tissues.
·Describe the shape of the nucleus in relation to cell morphology.
·Describe the nucleus and chromatin arrangement.
·Describe the nuclear envelope and the structure of the nuclear pore.
·Describe the nucleolus and its functional role.
·Describe the morphological aspect of the nucleus during mitosis and apoptosis.
·Define the phases of the cell cycle.
·Describe the different cell population according to their pattern of growth.
·Describe the general relationships between cells, tissue, organs and systems.
Clinical drop: laminopathies.

Topic 8: Epithelia: apical and basolateral specializations of epithelial cells. Cell junctions.
· Describe the general aspect and function of epithelial cells.
· Describe and recognize microvilli, cilia, and stereocilia.
· Describe and recognize intercellular junctions at light and electron microscope levels.
· Describe occluding, anchoring, and gap junctions in epithelial cells and in different cell types, and discuss their functions.
Clinical drops: pemphigus foliaceus.
Clinical drops: epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition.

Topic 9: Cell polarity and cilia
· Describe what is cell polarity and why is important,
· Describe the differences between apico-basal polarity and planar polarity
· Describe cellilar junctions to mantain polarity
· Define motile cilia versus primary cilia immotile cilia
clinical drop: mutations associated with planar cell polarity causing developmental human defects

Topic 10: Lining epithelia: classification and localizations.
· Describe general aspects and functions of epithelia tissue: lining and secretory epithelia.
· Describe the general aspects and function of lining epithelia.
· Describe the types and the functions of epithelial cells.
· Describe the relationship between morphology and function in epithelial cells.
· Classify the different epithelia that cover or line an organ, and describe their localization.
· Describe the structure of epidermis and the cell types that are contained.
· Describe the structure and function of the basement membrane.
· Describe stem cells in the epithelial tissue: localization recognition and function.

Topic 11: Exocrine glands.
· Describe the general aspect and function of exocrine glands.
· Distinguish unicellular from multicellular exocrine glands.
· Compare the histological aspect and microscopic structure of the major multicellular exocrine glands.
· Describe the interrelationship and functions of the intercalated duct, striated duct, and interlobular duct.

Topic 12: Endocrine glands.
· Describe the general aspect and function of endocrine glands.
· Describe the cytological and histological characteristics of the endocrine glands, and recognize their structure.
· Describe the functional role of the hypophyseal portal circulation in the regulation of pituitary secretions.
· Describe the functional role of the nervous system in coordinating the actions of the endocrine glands.

Topic 13: Connective tissue: cellular components and extracellular matrix.
· Describe the general organization of the connective tissue.
· Describe the key morphological and functional differences between epithelia and connective tissue.
· Identify the cellular components of connective tissue and describe their functional role.
· Describe the components of the extracellular matrix, and their interrelationship.
Clinical drops: extracellular matrix remodeling in tumor invasion and fibrosis.

Topic 14: Connective tissue: proper connective tissue
· Illustrate the classification, the properties and typical locations of the various types of connective tissues: loose, dense regular, dense irregular, elastic, and reticular.
· Describe the localization and understand the functional roles of the different connective tissues.


Topic 15: Connective tissue: connective with special roles: adipose tissue.
·Illustrate the classification, the properties and typical locations of the adipose tissue.
·Describe the localization and understand the functional roles of the different adipose tissues.

Topic 16: Specialized connective tissue: cartilage.
· Describe how the cellular and extracellular components of cartilage contribute to its structure and function.
· Describe the mechanisms of cartilage growth.
· Recognize the three classifications of cartilage.
· Describe the main localizations of cartilage in the human body.

Topic 17: Specialized connective tissue: bone and osteogenesis.
· Describe the cellular and extracellular components of bone, and discuss how they contribute to the structure and function of this tissue. · Recognize the differences between compact and spongy bone, and compare their functions.
· Describe the periosteum and its functional role.
· Describe the mechanisms of bone growth.
· Describe the mechanisms of bone remodeling and repair.
Clinical drops: bone pathologies

Topic 18: Specialized connective tissue: blood and hemopoiesis.
· Describe the components and the general functions of blood.
· Distinguish red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets, and describe their functional role.
· Describe the cytological and histological aspect of red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets
· Describe the main steps of hemostasis.
· Describe the developmental precursors of erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets.
· Distinguish the morphological changes that occur during differentiation into an erythrocyte and a granulocyte.
Clinical drop: hemoglobinopathy
Clinical drop: main neutrophils diseases

Topic 19: Muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle tissues.
· Describe the components of skeletal muscle, and understand their functions.
· Describe the structure of myofibrils.
· Describe the sarcomere structure and the principles of striated muscle contraction.
· Describe the arrangement of the sarcoplasmic reticulum and its function during muscle contraction.
· Recognize skeletal muscle in histological preparations.
· Distinguish the endomysium, perimysium and epimysium structure and function in a skeletal muscle.
· Distinguish the morphological criteria to recognize skeletal and cardiac muscle in histological preparations.
· Describe the functional differences between skeletal and cardiac muscle.
· Understand the morphological criteria to recognize cardiac and smooth muscle in histological preparations.
· Learn the functional differences between skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscle.
· Describe the main localizations of smooth muscle tissue.
· Understand the general principles of smooth muscle contraction.

Topic 20: Nervous tissue
· Describe the structure and the general function of neurons.
· Describe the structural relationships between the axon, myelin sheath, node of Ranvier, Schmidt-Lantermann clefts, and the Schwann cell.
· Describe the process of myelination and myelin function.
· Recognize nervous tissue in histological sections.
· Understand the general structure of a peripheral nerve.
· Distinguish the endoneurium, perineurium and epineurium of a peripheral nerve.
· Describe the structure of synapses and their role in the transmission of nerve impulse
· Describe the morphology and the general function of glial cells, and their relationship with neurons.
· Describe the blood-brain barrier and its role.
· Recognize specialized sensory neuronal endings, their main localization and their function.


Topic 21: Introduction. Male gametogenesis. Testes and cycle of the seminiferous epithelium. Introduction to genital ducts.
· Describe the general histological organization of the testis and epididymis.
· Describe the process of spermatogenesis.
· Distinguish the structural changes that occur in the spermatids during spermiogenesis.
· Describe the various cell types of the seminiferous tubule and of the interstitium of the testis.
· Describe the relationship between the Sertoli cells and developing sperm cells.
· Compare the structure and function of the epididymis and genital ducts.
· Describe the "blood-testis" barrier and explain why it is important.

Topic 22: Female gametogenesis. Ovary and uterus. Maturation of follicles and menstrual cycle
· Describe the histological organization of the ovaries. · Describe the process of oogenesis, folliculogenesis, and ovulation.
· Discuss the relationship of the ovarian follicle, corpus luteum and corpus albicans.
· Illustrate the changes in the ovaries during ageing process.
· Describe those cells involved in steroid production within the ovary.
· Describe the hypothalamus-pituitary-ovarian axis and how this relates to monthly changes in the ovaries.
· Describe the general structure of the uterus and uterine tubes.
· Describe the cyclic changes of the endometrium.
· Describe the hypothalamus-pituitary-ovarian axis and how this relates to monthly changes in the uterus.

Topic 23: Fertilization. Early stages of the embryo development. Segmentation. Morula. Blastocyst implantation
· Describe the process of fertilization and the phases of zygote cleavage.
· Describe the implantation and continuation of embryonic development.
· Describe the formation of the amniotic cavity and of the embryonic disc.

Topic 24: 3rd week of embryo development
· Describe the role of primitive streak and primitive node and the formation of the body axes.
· Describe the formation of the three primitive layers.
· Describe the notochord and its role.
· Describe the formation of the neural plate and neural tube.
· Describe the destiny of the neural crest.
Clinical drop: Sirenomelia.
Clinical drop: Hirschsprung disease.

Topic 25: Embryo annexes
· Describe the amniotic cavity.
· Describe the allantois.
· Describe the yolk sac and illustrate the concepts of vasculogenesis and angiogenesis in the formation of embryonic blood vessels.
· Describe the chorionic villi and their functional role.
· Describe the placenta and the fetal placental circulation.