Statistics, Epidemiology and History of the Healthcare Services

- Evaluation of the reliability of methods of collecting and measuring data of biomedical interest
- The concept of trustworthiness of a measure, sample, population, estimate and parameter
- Causes of systematic errors and random errors
Variability: quantitative character variability within the individual and between individuals
- Descriptive methods: Interpretation of graphic representations of a distribution; the concepts of medium value,
dispersion, and for of a distribution; Calculation of the main location and dispersion indices of a distribution;
measurement accuracy and accuracy indices; quantiles (quartiles, centili) - Reference limits; Kappa Correlation and
statistics
- Gaussian model: Interpreting population data; characteristics of the Gaussian measurement error distribution model
- Screening tests: merging and intersection of events; probability; calculation of the probability of an event, the
intersection of independent events, and conditional events; logical basis of the screening test; definitions of falsely
positive and falsely negative outcome with respect to a diagnostic marker threshold value; sensitivity and specificity
of a diagnostic test or symptom; calculation and discussion of the concept of positive and negative predictive value;
likelihood report for a success (or failure) at the diagnostic test; concept of pre-test and post-test probability and
odds; Bayes' theorem
- Sample estimate of population parameters from data expressed in various ways; sample variability; distinguishing
between sample and population concepts; distinguishing between the sample prediction concepts of a parameter
and parameter of a population
- Sampling distribution: distribution of sample estimates; standard error meaning of a sample prediction
- Confidence interval and its meaning
- Hypothesis testing: error of I and II type; power of a test; logical basis of the sample size calculation; difference
between statistical significance and clinical significance; how to build a statistical test for assumptions about the
population average (known variance); Testing of independence between variables: the chi-squared
- Differences between deterministic model and probabilistic model; characteristics of the simple linear regression
model and the meaning of simple linear regression parameters; Taking a hypothesis test on the parameters of the
simple linear regression model; how to correct (adjust) for a confusing variable the association between two data
series

- The origins and meaning of Medicine and the History of Medicine
- Study and research sources: Medicine in ancient Greece and Rome. Medieval Medicine; Knowing the body:
Renaissance and Animated Anatomy. Iatrophysics and Iatrochemistry. Microscopic anatomy.
- Enlightenment and public health: occupational diseases, hygiene and preventive medicine, vaccine prophylaxis,
orthopedics, humanitarian treatment of the mentally ill persons.
- The birth of Clinics and its tools: semeiotics, diagnostics and therapy; Surgery problems and their solution:
analgesia, anesthesia, asepsis and antisepsis. Cell theory and microbiology.
- The 20th century: new concepts, tools and therapies; Evolution and transformation of hospitals.
- Elements of the history of public health in Lombardy

1. Meaning and use of the epidemiological method: from data analysis to programming and evaluation within the health system.
2. Using health and demographic data in epidemiology
- Main sources of health and demographic data
- Indicators: meaning and use
- Guided analysis of current health data
3. Frequency measurements:
- Ratios, proportions, rates;
- Concept of prevalence, incidence, incidence density, cumulative incidence
- Rate standardization
- Guided exercises
4. Study drawings and their application
- Ecological studies (or correlation studies) and their application: the search for differences. Case study.
- Prevalence studies and their application: case study
- Cohort studies and their application
- Case control studies and their application
Experimental studies
5. Association and impact measures: relative risk, odds ratio, risk attributable as an absolute measure and as a relative measure
6. Studies for the evaluation of preventive trials
- Epidemiological impact of vaccinations
- Evaluation and meaning of screening tests
7. Global Health
- Key concepts and definition of Global Health; its evolution from tropical medicine to public health and international health
- Global burden of disease, epidemiological transition and global indicators of progress in health; recent phenomena and the future of Global Haelth
- Socio-economic determinants of health
- UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
- TB as a model for Global Haelth
- World Health Organization and other actors; international cooperation; the big challenges: migration and climate change

- Principles of medical sciences applied to business organisation, management control systems, operations management
- Costs and impact on the applied medical organization
- Performance cycle