General Biochemistry
A.Y. 2024/2025
Learning objectives
The course of General Biochemistry aims to lead students through a path that allows them to acquire the appropriate biochemical terminology and the knowledge in relation to:
- structure, chemical-physical properties and functions of the main biomolecules (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleotides) of specific relevance for the human body;
- enzymes and principles of thermodynamic and kinetic control of chemical reactions occurring in human cells;
- molecular basis of the main metabolic pathways of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleotides, also highlighting their regulatory mechanisms.
- structure, chemical-physical properties and functions of the main biomolecules (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleotides) of specific relevance for the human body;
- enzymes and principles of thermodynamic and kinetic control of chemical reactions occurring in human cells;
- molecular basis of the main metabolic pathways of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleotides, also highlighting their regulatory mechanisms.
Expected learning outcomes
At the end of the course of General Biochemistry, the student should know the chemical-physical principles that underlie the structure-function relationship of biomolecules of specific relevance for the human body. Also, the student must have learned to describe with appropriate scientific terminology the main metabolic pathways, the properties and characteristics of the biological macromolecules involved and the strategies for regulating their functions.
Regarding the application skills, at the end of the course the student will be able to use the correct biochemical terminology and will be able to evaluate aspects related to the relationship between structure and function of biological macromolecules. Furthermore, he/she will have the knowledge of the fundamental metabolic pathways and the essential skills to be able to identify the central points of regulation and the consequences of their malfunction to be able to interpret pathophysiological events in human cells.
Regarding the application skills, at the end of the course the student will be able to use the correct biochemical terminology and will be able to evaluate aspects related to the relationship between structure and function of biological macromolecules. Furthermore, he/she will have the knowledge of the fundamental metabolic pathways and the essential skills to be able to identify the central points of regulation and the consequences of their malfunction to be able to interpret pathophysiological events in human cells.
Lesson period: Second semester
Assessment methods: Esame
Assessment result: voto verbalizzato in trentesimi
Single course
This course can be attended as a single course.
Course syllabus and organization
Linea AL
Responsible
Lesson period
Second semester
Course syllabus
Structure and functions of proteins
Structure and classification of amino acids.
Characteristics of the peptide bond.
Structure (Iaria, IIaria, IIIaria and IVaria).
Fibrous (collagen) and globular proteins (albumin, myoglobin, and hemoglobin, insulin, and glucagon).
Enzymes: classification, properties and structural characteristics, cofactors and coenzymes, enzyme kinetics; regulation of enzymatic activity; inhibitors; allosteric enzymes.
Bioenergetics and introduction to metabolism
Exergonic and endergonic reactions, anabolism, and catabolism.
Functions of ATP: coupled reactions and group transfer.
Compounds with high energy content.
Oxidative phosphorylation: respiratory chain and ATP synthase; inhibitors, and decouplers.
Krebs cycle: chemical reactions and regulation; catabolic and anabolic functions; anaplerotic reactions.
Carbohydrates
Structure and functions of mono-, di- and polysaccharides; glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans and glycoproteins.
Glucose metabolism: glycolysis; phosphate pentose shunts; glycogenosynthesis and glycogenolysis; gluconeogenesis.
Metabolism of fructose and galactose.
Sugar interconversion pathway, synthesis of glucuronic acid, lactose, and polyol pathway.
Lipids
Structure and functions of fatty acids, triglycerides, glycerolphospholipids, sphingolphospholipids, glycosphingolipids and cholesterol. Biological membranes.
Oxidation, ketogenesis and biosynthesis of fatty acids.
Biosynthesis of triglycerides, membrane lipids (glycerolphospholipids, sphingolphospholipids and sphingoglycolipids) and lipid mediators.
Cholesterol biosynthesis and metabolic fates (bile acids and salts, steroid hormones, and vitamin D).
Biosynthesis and intravascular metabolism of lipoproteins (chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL and HDL).).
Amino acids
Biosynthesis and catabolism of amino acids (essential and non-essential, glucogenic and/or ketogenic; donating monocarbon units).
Reactions of removal of the amino group and organication of ammonia.
Urea cycle.
Main anabolic fates (carnitine, creatine, S-adenosyl-methionine, taurine, glutathione, nitric oxide, biogenic amines, thyroid hormones, and polyamines).
Nucleotides
Structure, chemical properties and functions of nucleotides.
De novo biosynthesis and recovery pathways of nitrogenous bases.
Catabolism of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides.
Structure and classification of amino acids.
Characteristics of the peptide bond.
Structure (Iaria, IIaria, IIIaria and IVaria).
Fibrous (collagen) and globular proteins (albumin, myoglobin, and hemoglobin, insulin, and glucagon).
Enzymes: classification, properties and structural characteristics, cofactors and coenzymes, enzyme kinetics; regulation of enzymatic activity; inhibitors; allosteric enzymes.
Bioenergetics and introduction to metabolism
Exergonic and endergonic reactions, anabolism, and catabolism.
Functions of ATP: coupled reactions and group transfer.
Compounds with high energy content.
Oxidative phosphorylation: respiratory chain and ATP synthase; inhibitors, and decouplers.
Krebs cycle: chemical reactions and regulation; catabolic and anabolic functions; anaplerotic reactions.
Carbohydrates
Structure and functions of mono-, di- and polysaccharides; glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans and glycoproteins.
Glucose metabolism: glycolysis; phosphate pentose shunts; glycogenosynthesis and glycogenolysis; gluconeogenesis.
Metabolism of fructose and galactose.
Sugar interconversion pathway, synthesis of glucuronic acid, lactose, and polyol pathway.
Lipids
Structure and functions of fatty acids, triglycerides, glycerolphospholipids, sphingolphospholipids, glycosphingolipids and cholesterol. Biological membranes.
Oxidation, ketogenesis and biosynthesis of fatty acids.
Biosynthesis of triglycerides, membrane lipids (glycerolphospholipids, sphingolphospholipids and sphingoglycolipids) and lipid mediators.
Cholesterol biosynthesis and metabolic fates (bile acids and salts, steroid hormones, and vitamin D).
Biosynthesis and intravascular metabolism of lipoproteins (chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL and HDL).).
Amino acids
Biosynthesis and catabolism of amino acids (essential and non-essential, glucogenic and/or ketogenic; donating monocarbon units).
Reactions of removal of the amino group and organication of ammonia.
Urea cycle.
Main anabolic fates (carnitine, creatine, S-adenosyl-methionine, taurine, glutathione, nitric oxide, biogenic amines, thyroid hormones, and polyamines).
Nucleotides
Structure, chemical properties and functions of nucleotides.
De novo biosynthesis and recovery pathways of nitrogenous bases.
Catabolism of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides.
Prerequisites for admission
The course is for students who have acquired knowledge of inorganic general chemistry and general biology.
Teaching methods
Frontal lectures (8 credits)
Teaching Resources
Iconographic material of the lessons on the site https://myariel.unimi.it/
- G. D'Andrea, "La Biochimica di Thomas Devlin", EdiSES, 6a ed., 2023
- N. Siliprandi, G. Tettamanti, "Biochimica Applicata Medica", Piccin, 5a ed., 2018
- D.L. Nelson, M.M. Cox, "I Principi di Biochimica di Lehninger", Zanichelli, 8a ed., 2022
- G. D'Andrea, "La Biochimica di Thomas Devlin", EdiSES, 6a ed., 2023
- N. Siliprandi, G. Tettamanti, "Biochimica Applicata Medica", Piccin, 5a ed., 2018
- D.L. Nelson, M.M. Cox, "I Principi di Biochimica di Lehninger", Zanichelli, 8a ed., 2022
Assessment methods and Criteria
The verification consists in an oral exam. The exam questions always concern all sections of the program, and will include the discussion of:
- structure, chemical characteristics, and functions of biomolecules;
- classification, kinetics, and regulation of enzymes;
- metabolic pathways, illustrating all the reactions and intermediates, and their regulation.
Of the described biomolecules (amino acids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleotides) it is necessary to know both the structure and the function well. As regards metabolic biochemistry, the student is asked to describe the metabolic pathways in detail, demonstrating knowledge of the chemical structure of all the intermediates, the reactions and regulatory enzymes, the energy balance and the connection with the other metabolic pathways.
The exam is considered passed when the student demonstrates knowledge of all the required topics.
The grade assigning is established on the basis of the demonstrated level of depth of knowledge and the ability to answer the questions with appropriate terminology; the ability to recognize connections between different topics and the demonstration of having drawn on sources other than the notes or slides proposed in class will be particularly appreciated.
In each Academic Year 7 exam sessions will be fixed. These "ordinary" sessions will be scheduled only in the periods in which there is no provision of lessons, namely:
- 1 exam in the autumn suspension period of teaching (usually at the end of November)
- 2 exam sessions between the last week of January and the end of February
- 1 exam in the spring suspension period of teaching (normally in April)
- 2 exam sessions between mid-June and late July
- 1 session in September.
In each Academic Year, at the request of the students, two "extraordinary" sessions, reserved for students who are out of course, can be set even in periods in which there is no suspension of teaching activities (1 extraordinary "spring session" session in March or May; 1 extraordinary "autumn session" session in October or December).
- structure, chemical characteristics, and functions of biomolecules;
- classification, kinetics, and regulation of enzymes;
- metabolic pathways, illustrating all the reactions and intermediates, and their regulation.
Of the described biomolecules (amino acids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleotides) it is necessary to know both the structure and the function well. As regards metabolic biochemistry, the student is asked to describe the metabolic pathways in detail, demonstrating knowledge of the chemical structure of all the intermediates, the reactions and regulatory enzymes, the energy balance and the connection with the other metabolic pathways.
The exam is considered passed when the student demonstrates knowledge of all the required topics.
The grade assigning is established on the basis of the demonstrated level of depth of knowledge and the ability to answer the questions with appropriate terminology; the ability to recognize connections between different topics and the demonstration of having drawn on sources other than the notes or slides proposed in class will be particularly appreciated.
In each Academic Year 7 exam sessions will be fixed. These "ordinary" sessions will be scheduled only in the periods in which there is no provision of lessons, namely:
- 1 exam in the autumn suspension period of teaching (usually at the end of November)
- 2 exam sessions between the last week of January and the end of February
- 1 exam in the spring suspension period of teaching (normally in April)
- 2 exam sessions between mid-June and late July
- 1 session in September.
In each Academic Year, at the request of the students, two "extraordinary" sessions, reserved for students who are out of course, can be set even in periods in which there is no suspension of teaching activities (1 extraordinary "spring session" session in March or May; 1 extraordinary "autumn session" session in October or December).
Linea MZ
Responsible
Lesson period
Second semester
Course syllabus
Structure and functions of proteins
Structure and classification of amino acids.
Characteristics of the peptide bond.
Structure (Iaria, IIaria, IIIaria and IVaria).
Fibrous (collagen) and globular proteins (albumin, myoglobin, and hemoglobin, insulin, and glucagon).
Enzymes: classification, properties and structural characteristics, cofactors and coenzymes, enzyme kinetics; regulation of enzymatic activity; inhibitors; allosteric enzymes.
Bioenergetics and introduction to metabolism
Exergonic and endergonic reactions, anabolism, and catabolism.
Functions of ATP: coupled reactions and group transfer.
Compounds with high energy content.
Oxidative phosphorylation: respiratory chain and ATP synthase; inhibitors, and decouplers.
Krebs cycle: chemical reactions and regulation; catabolic and anabolic functions; anaplerotic reactions.
Carbohydrates
Structure and functions of mono-, di- and polysaccharides; glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans and glycoproteins.
Glucose metabolism: glycolysis; phosphate pentose shunts; glycogenosynthesis and glycogenolysis; gluconeogenesis.
Metabolism of fructose and galactose.
Sugar interconversion pathway, synthesis of glucuronic acid, lactose, and polyol pathway.
Lipids
Structure and functions of fatty acids, triglycerides, glycerolphospholipids, sphingolphospholipids, glycosphingolipids and cholesterol. Biological membranes.
Oxidation, ketogenesis and biosynthesis of fatty acids.
Biosynthesis of triglycerides, membrane lipids (glycerolphospholipids, sphingolphospholipids and sphingoglycolipids) and lipid mediators.
Cholesterol biosynthesis and metabolic fates (bile acids and salts, steroid hormones, and vitamin D).
Biosynthesis and intravascular metabolism of lipoproteins (chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL and HDL).).
Amino acids
Biosynthesis and catabolism of amino acids (essential and non-essential, glucogenic and/or ketogenic; donating monocarbon units).
Reactions of removal of the amino group and organication of ammonia.
Urea cycle.
Main anabolic fates (carnitine, creatine, S-adenosyl-methionine, taurine, glutathione, nitric oxide, biogenic amines, thyroid hormones, and polyamines).
Nucleotides
Structure, chemical properties and functions of nucleotides.
De novo biosynthesis and recovery pathways of nitrogenous bases.
Catabolism of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides.
Structure and classification of amino acids.
Characteristics of the peptide bond.
Structure (Iaria, IIaria, IIIaria and IVaria).
Fibrous (collagen) and globular proteins (albumin, myoglobin, and hemoglobin, insulin, and glucagon).
Enzymes: classification, properties and structural characteristics, cofactors and coenzymes, enzyme kinetics; regulation of enzymatic activity; inhibitors; allosteric enzymes.
Bioenergetics and introduction to metabolism
Exergonic and endergonic reactions, anabolism, and catabolism.
Functions of ATP: coupled reactions and group transfer.
Compounds with high energy content.
Oxidative phosphorylation: respiratory chain and ATP synthase; inhibitors, and decouplers.
Krebs cycle: chemical reactions and regulation; catabolic and anabolic functions; anaplerotic reactions.
Carbohydrates
Structure and functions of mono-, di- and polysaccharides; glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans and glycoproteins.
Glucose metabolism: glycolysis; phosphate pentose shunts; glycogenosynthesis and glycogenolysis; gluconeogenesis.
Metabolism of fructose and galactose.
Sugar interconversion pathway, synthesis of glucuronic acid, lactose, and polyol pathway.
Lipids
Structure and functions of fatty acids, triglycerides, glycerolphospholipids, sphingolphospholipids, glycosphingolipids and cholesterol. Biological membranes.
Oxidation, ketogenesis and biosynthesis of fatty acids.
Biosynthesis of triglycerides, membrane lipids (glycerolphospholipids, sphingolphospholipids and sphingoglycolipids) and lipid mediators.
Cholesterol biosynthesis and metabolic fates (bile acids and salts, steroid hormones, and vitamin D).
Biosynthesis and intravascular metabolism of lipoproteins (chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL and HDL).).
Amino acids
Biosynthesis and catabolism of amino acids (essential and non-essential, glucogenic and/or ketogenic; donating monocarbon units).
Reactions of removal of the amino group and organication of ammonia.
Urea cycle.
Main anabolic fates (carnitine, creatine, S-adenosyl-methionine, taurine, glutathione, nitric oxide, biogenic amines, thyroid hormones, and polyamines).
Nucleotides
Structure, chemical properties and functions of nucleotides.
De novo biosynthesis and recovery pathways of nitrogenous bases.
Catabolism of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides.
Prerequisites for admission
The course is for students who have acquired knowledge of inorganic general chemistry, general biology, and anatomy.
Teaching methods
Frontal lectures in classroom (8 credits)
Teaching Resources
Iconographic material of the lessons on the site https://myariel.unimi.it/
Recommended texts:
- G. D'Andrea, "La Biochimica di Thomas Devlin", EdiSES, 6a ed., 2023
- N. Siliprandi, G. Tettamanti, "Biochimica Applicata Medica", Piccin, 5a ed., 2018
- D.L. Nelson, M.M. Cox, "I Principi di Biochimica di Lehninger", Zanichelli, 8a ed., 2022
Recommended texts:
- G. D'Andrea, "La Biochimica di Thomas Devlin", EdiSES, 6a ed., 2023
- N. Siliprandi, G. Tettamanti, "Biochimica Applicata Medica", Piccin, 5a ed., 2018
- D.L. Nelson, M.M. Cox, "I Principi di Biochimica di Lehninger", Zanichelli, 8a ed., 2022
Assessment methods and Criteria
The verification consists in an oral exam. The exam questions always concern all sections of the program, and will include the discussion of:
- structure, chemical characteristics, and functions of biomolecules;
- classification, kinetics, and regulation of enzymes;
- metabolic pathways, illustrating all the reactions and intermediates, and their regulation.
Of the described biomolecules (amino acids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleotides) it is necessary to know both the structure and the function well. As regards metabolic biochemistry, the student is asked to describe the metabolic pathways in detail, demonstrating knowledge of the chemical structure of all the intermediates, the reactions and regulatory enzymes, the energy balance and the connection with the other metabolic pathways.
The exam is considered passed when the student demonstrates knowledge of all the required topics.
The grade assigning is established on the basis of the demonstrated level of depth of knowledge and the ability to answer the questions with appropriate terminology; the ability to recognize connections between different topics and the demonstration of having drawn on sources other than the notes or slides proposed in class will be particularly appreciated.
In each Academic Year 7 exam sessions will be fixed. These "ordinary" sessions will be scheduled only in the periods in which there is no provision of lessons, namely:
- 1 exam in the autumn suspension period of teaching (usually at the end of November)
- 2 exam sessions between the last week of January and the end of February
- 1 exam in the spring suspension period of teaching (normally in April)
- 2 exam sessions between mid-June and late July
- 1 session in September.
In each Academic Year, at the request of the students, two "extraordinary" sessions, reserved for students who are out of course, can be set even in periods in which there is no suspension of teaching activities (1 extraordinary "spring session" session in March or May; 1 extraordinary "autumn session" session in October or December).
- structure, chemical characteristics, and functions of biomolecules;
- classification, kinetics, and regulation of enzymes;
- metabolic pathways, illustrating all the reactions and intermediates, and their regulation.
Of the described biomolecules (amino acids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleotides) it is necessary to know both the structure and the function well. As regards metabolic biochemistry, the student is asked to describe the metabolic pathways in detail, demonstrating knowledge of the chemical structure of all the intermediates, the reactions and regulatory enzymes, the energy balance and the connection with the other metabolic pathways.
The exam is considered passed when the student demonstrates knowledge of all the required topics.
The grade assigning is established on the basis of the demonstrated level of depth of knowledge and the ability to answer the questions with appropriate terminology; the ability to recognize connections between different topics and the demonstration of having drawn on sources other than the notes or slides proposed in class will be particularly appreciated.
In each Academic Year 7 exam sessions will be fixed. These "ordinary" sessions will be scheduled only in the periods in which there is no provision of lessons, namely:
- 1 exam in the autumn suspension period of teaching (usually at the end of November)
- 2 exam sessions between the last week of January and the end of February
- 1 exam in the spring suspension period of teaching (normally in April)
- 2 exam sessions between mid-June and late July
- 1 session in September.
In each Academic Year, at the request of the students, two "extraordinary" sessions, reserved for students who are out of course, can be set even in periods in which there is no suspension of teaching activities (1 extraordinary "spring session" session in March or May; 1 extraordinary "autumn session" session in October or December).
Professor(s)