Pathology and Biological Basis of Life

Matter and atomic structure. Matter and atomic structure. Structure of the atom. Concept of electronegativity. Definition of cations, anions and molecules.
Chemical bonds and intermolecular forces. Ionic bond, covalent bond. Hydrogen bonding.
The solutions. Water: structure and properties. Concept of hydrophobic, hydrophilic and amphipathic substance.
Ionic equilibria in aqueous solution. Water ionization; ionic product of water; pH; acids and bases; buffer solutions.
Chemical reactions. Gibbs free Energy concept and exergonic, endoergonic reactions. Concept of spontaneity of reaction and coupling of reactions to make spontaneous reactions possible. Catalysis and enzyme concept. Redox reactions and Nernst law.
Carbon and its bonds. Main classes of functional groups characterizing biomolecules: alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, carboxylic acids and amines. Derivatives of organic compounds and polyfunctional compounds.
Structure and function of macromolecules of biological interest. Lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, amino acids and proteins.
Cellular metabolism. ATP and other high energy content molecules. NAD+/NADH and FAD/FADH2. Bio-synthesis of ATP. Aerobic glycolysis and lactic acid fermentation. Gluconeogenesis. Krebs cycle. Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. Synthesis and use of glycogen.

Characteristics of living organisms. Cell theory; cell study methods; prokaryotic cells; eukaryotic cells; hierarchical organization in biology; evolution of organisms.
Structure and organization of the eukaryotic cell. Biological macromolecules; cellular partitioning; cell organelles; ribosomes; cytoskeleton; junctions; matrix.
Structure and function of biological membranes. Fluid mosaic model; transport through the membrane.
Cellular communication. Mode of communication between cells.
Flow of genetic information. Central dogma of biology; DNA replication; transcription; maturation of messenger RNAs; genetic code and its properties; protein synthesis mechanism; post-synthetic fate of proteins; point mutations

Molecular basis of inheritance. Chromosomes; somatic and germinal cells; chromosome and ploidy structure; chromosome dynamics in mitosis and meiosis; gametogenesis and fertilization; sex determination.
Mendelian genetics. Mendel's laws; genotype and phenotype; gene, allele, locus; interactions between alleles; multiple allelism (ABO).
Associated genes. Associated and independent genes; crossing-over and recombination; distance between genes. Family trees. Representation of family trees; autosomal dominant inheritance, autosomal recessive, chromosome X-related; mitochondrial inheritance, mendelian genetic diseases.
Gene mutations. Evolutionary role; spontaneous and induced mutations; germline and somatic mutations; mosaicism; molecular bases; phenotypic effects (neutral mutations, missense, nonsense, frameshift).
Multi-factor inheritance. Continuous and discontinuous characters; interaction with the environment.
Human karyotype. Morphology and classification of human chromosomes; the normal human karyotype; prenatal and postnatal chromosomal analysis; preparation of a chromosomal preparation; inactivation of the X chromosome.
Chromosomal and genomic mutations. Main chromosomal mutations (deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation) and their effects; genomic mutations (polyploidy, aneuploidy), non-disjunction; main aneuploidies of autosomes and heterosomes in humans.

Introduction. Definition of etiology, pathogenesis, disease.
Cellular pathology. Reversible/irreversible damage; apoptosis/necrosis; atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia.
Immune response. Humoral and cell-mediated immune response; immunodeficiencies, hypersensitivity reactions, autoimmunity.
Inflammation. Acute inflammation: vascular changes, cellular events, mediators; chronic inflammation; systemic responses to inflammation.
Tissue repair. Wound healing, regeneration.
Oncology. Epidemiology and classification of tumors; characteristics of the cancer cell; molecular bases of tumors, oncogenes, oncosuppressors; metastases.