Biochemistry and Human Nutrition

The program of the Biochemistry module addresses the following topics:
· Carbohydrates: chemical structure, stereochemistry, reactivity and function of monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides (homo and hetero-polysaccharides).
· Amino acids: chemical and chemical-physical features and properties of amino acids and their reactivity.
· Peptides and proteins: chemical and geometric characteristics of the peptide bond; secondary, third and quaternary structures of proteins; main functions.
· Fibrous and globular proteins (myoglobin and hemoglobin)
· Structure, function and reactivity of lipids: chemical and chemical-physical sources and characteristics of the main food lipids.
· Enzymatic kinetics: characteristics of enzymes, the principles of enzymatic kinetics and related mathematical models, and regulation of enzyme activity.
· Cofactors and coenzymes.
· Bioenergetics and high energy content biomolecules.
· Carbohydrate metabolism: glucose metabolism, glycolysis (mechanisms and thermodynamic considerations of individual reactions), gluconeogenesis (mechanisms of limiting reactions, gluconeogenic substrates, correlations with Cori and alanine cycle), pentose phosphate cycle (mechanisms and regulation), glycogen metabolism (enzymes and reactions of the synthesis and degradation pathway); coordinated regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis; coordinated regulation of glycogen synthesis and degradation.
· Krebs cycle: structure of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and reaction mechanism; structure of enzymatic complexes, mechanisms and thermodynamic considerations of the single reactions of the cycle; mechanisms and points of regulation of the entire cycle.
· Respiratory chain and oxidative phosphorylation: description of cellular respiration, chemical and structural characteristics of the universal electron acceptors of biochemical reactions; structure and function of the electron transport chain complexes; molecular aspects of electron flow; production reactions of reactive oxygen species at mitochondrial level; the chemiosmotic model; structure and function of ATP synthase; electron transport through the mitochondrial membrane (malate-aspartate shuttle, glycerol 3-phosphate shuttle).
· Lipid metabolism: digestion, absorption and transport of lipids, mechanisms of reactions of fatty acid biosynthesis; sites and regulation mechanisms; elongation and desaturation reactions of exogenous and endogenous fatty acids; notes on the metabolism of arachidonic acid; notes on triglyceride and phospholipid biosynthesis pathways; catabolism of fatty acids, metabolism of ketone bodies, cholesterol metabolism.
· Amino acid metabolism: exogenous and endogenous sources of amino acids; transamination reactions (mechanism); oxidative deamination; urea cycle (reaction mechanisms and regulation); fate of the carbon skeleton (cycle of tricarboxylic acids, gluconeogenesis and alanine cycle); nitrogen balance.
· Vitamins and vitamino-like factors
· Hormones and signal transduction: biochemical aspects of signal transduction; structure, function and modulation of the main receptors involved in the regulation of metabolic pathways
· Metabolic interrelations related to feeding/fasting cycle

The program of the Food and Human Nutrition module addresses the following topics:
· Call back principles of anatomy and physiology of the gastrointestinal tract. Motor and secretory activities of the digestive system and their regulations.
· Energy requirements and expenditure: basal metabolism, food-induced thermogenesis and physical activity. Evaluation methods of energy expenditure. Energy expenditure in relation to age, different physiological states and different levels of physical activity
· Proteins: Structure, digestion and absorption of dietary proteins. Functions, metabolism and use of amino acids in the human body.Essential amino acids, protein quality and methods to evaluate it.Protein requirements in different age groups and physiological states. Bioactive peptides.
· Lipids: Structure and classification. Digestion and absorption of food lipids. Lipoproteins. Metabolism and functions of lipids in the human body.Essential fatty acids, eicosanoids.Lipid requirements in different age groups and physiological states. Trans-fatty acids. CLA. Notes on the role of the quantity / quality of food lipids on human health.
· Available carbohydrates, simple and complex.Structure, digestion and absorption of carbohydrates (focus on lactose).Metabolism (focus on fructose).Blood glucose regulation, glycemic index and factors that influence it. Glycemic load and meaning for human health. Need for available carbohydrates in different age groups and physiological states.
· Not available carbohydrates, simple and complex (focus on sweeteners). Definition and structure of dietary fiber. Substances annexed to fractions of dietary fiber. food sources of dietary fiber. Soluble and insoluble fiber and its effects on human health. Notes on the role of microbiota in relation to dietary fiber and consequences on the health of the host. Requirements of dietary fiber in different age groups
· Water balance and its regulation, functions performed by water in the human body, effects of dehydration
· Alcoholic and nervine drinks
· Dietary reference values of energy and nutrients for the Italian population: meaning of the different reference values.
· Nutrient bioavailability: meaning and factors that can influence it.
· Vitamins: absorption, metabolism, functions, food sources, requirements, risks related to deficiency states or excessive intake of fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins
· Minerals and trace elements: absorption, functions, homeostatic regulation mechanisms, requirements, food sources, clinical signs of deficiency, toxicity.